This book argues that Indian ascetic traditions originate from two independent sources one Vedic and the other non-Vedic. Drawing on early Indian literature such as the Epics and Buddhist and Jaina texts, it shows that these traditions clearly distinguish between two different types of ascetics with distinct goals and practices. The study builds on Bronkhorst's earlier work but focuses here on early Hindu asceticism and its relation to the four āśramas, using evidence from the Dharmasūtras, early Upanishads, and the Mahabharata.
Bronkhorst challenges earlier theories that locate the origin of Hindu asceticism solely in Vedic sacrifice or solely in non-Vedic practices. Instead, he proposes that asceticism in India has dual roots. Based on textual analysis, he identifies four early forms of ascetic life: two non-Vedic paths-the path of mortification and the path of insight-and two Vedic-related forms the vanaprastha stage and sannyäsa.
The latter retain links to sacrificial traditions, though in different ways, with renunciation representing an internalization of earlier ritual practices. Given the central role asceticism has played in Indian religious history, Bronkhorst's work offers an important contribution to understanding its origins. His analysis provides a clearer framework for interpreting the diversity of ascetic traditions and is likely to encourage further research in the field.
JOHANNES BRONKHORST (17 July 1946-14 May 2025) was a Dutch Orientalist and Indologist known for his work on Sanskrit grammar, Buddhist studies, and early Indian thought. After studying Sanskrit and Pali in Rajasthan and Pune, he served as Professor of Sanskrit and Indian Studies at the University of Lausanne from 1987 to 2011.
His influential book Greater Magadha (2007) reshaped scholarly understanding of early Indian history and the interactions among Brahmanism, Buddhism, and Jainism. A highly prolific scholar, he published widely across Indian philosophy, linguistics, and religious studies. In 1996, he became a corresponding member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.
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